Polymer Properties & Applications — Tg, Tm, Modulus, Solvent Resistance

A grade-level reference for engineering polymers organized by family: commodity, engineering, fluoropolymers, elastomers, biodegradable, bioabsorbable medical, specialty performance, conductive, and filler systems. Each grade entry lists glass transition Tg, melting Tm where crystalline, Young’s modulus E, density ρ, water absorption, solvent + chemical resistance highlights, common processing windows (extrusion, injection, FFF, SLS, autoclave, compression), and trademark + producer. Property numbers are referenced to ISO 527 (tensile), ISO 75 (HDT), ASTM D638 (US tensile), ASTM D790 (flexural), ASTM D648 (US HDT), ASTM D570 (water absorption), ASTM D2240 (Shore hardness), and producer datasheets (BASF, Covestro, SABIC, Solvay, Victrex, DuPont, Arkema, Daikin, AGC, 3M Dyneon, Mitsui, Toray, Teijin, Mitsubishi Chemical, LG Chem, Hanwha Solutions, Sumitomo, NatureWorks, Lenzing, Toyobo).

The conceptual treatment of glass transition, semi-crystalline morphology, viscoelasticity, and time-temperature superposition lives upward in mechanical-behavior-of-materials. Polymer chemistry (chain architecture, tacticity, copolymer sequencing) and processing (Carreau-Yasuda + WLF rheology, gate + runner design) live in adjacent engineering Tier 2 notes.

1. Commodity polymers (high-volume thermoplastics, ~75% of global polymer tonnage)

Global thermoplastic resin production ~400 Mt/y (2024 estimate); LDPE+LLDPE+HDPE+PP+PVC+PS+PET dominate this volume.

LDPE — Low-Density Polyethylene (CAS 9002-88-4)

• Highly branched (long + short chain branching from radical polymerization at 200-300°C, 1500-3000 bar); produced in autoclave or tubular reactor. Inventor: ICI 1933 (Reginald Gibson + Eric Fawcett).
• Tg -110°C, Tm 110-115°C, E 0.10-0.50 GPa, ρ 0.910-0.940 g/cm³, elongation 100-700%, water absorption <0.01%.
• Solvent: insoluble at RT; swells in xylene + decalin > 60°C.
• Applications: blown film for grocery + garbage bags, squeeze bottles, wire + cable insulation (low electrical loss).
• Producers: ExxonMobil, Dow, LyondellBasell, SABIC, Sinopec, ChemChina.

LLDPE — Linear Low-Density Polyethylene

• Ziegler-Natta or metallocene catalyst + α-olefin comonomer (1-butene, 1-hexene, 1-octene); short-chain branches only, no long-chain branches.
• Tg -110°C, Tm 120-130°C, E 0.20-0.70 GPa, ρ 0.910-0.940; better tear + puncture vs LDPE.
• Applications: stretch wrap film, agricultural film, garbage bags.
• Major producers: Dow (Elite, Dowlex), ExxonMobil (Exceed, Enable, ExxonMobil mLLDPE), LyondellBasell, SABIC, INEOS Olefins & Polymers, Reliance Industries.

HDPE — High-Density Polyethylene

• Ziegler-Natta or Phillips Cr catalyst; minimal branching; highly crystalline (60-80%).
• Tg -120°C, Tm 130-140°C, E 0.50-1.30 GPa, ρ 0.940-0.970, yield 20-30 MPa.
• Pipe grade PE100 (ISO 4427, ASTM D3350 cell class 445574C) for water + gas distribution; SDR 11 200 mm dia × 18.2 mm wall rated PN16 (1.6 MPa) potable water; weld via butt fusion + electrofusion + socket fusion.
• Bottle grade for milk, motor oil; blow-molded fuel tanks (auto multilayer HDPE-EVOH-HDPE).
• Producers: Chevron Phillips MarFlex, Dow Continuum, ExxonMobil HD, INEOS.

PP — Polypropylene (homopolymer iPP, random copolymer RACO, impact copolymer ICP)

• Discovered by Karl Ziegler + Giulio Natta 1954 (Nobel 1963).
• iPP: Tg -10°C, Tm 160-170°C, E 1.2-1.8 GPa, ρ 0.90, water absorption 0.01-0.03%; brittle below ~0°C.
• ICP: ethylene-propylene rubber phase dispersed; impact strength 25-65 kJ/m² Charpy notched at -30°C.
• RACO: ethylene comonomer 1-5%; transparency (yogurt cups, medical disposables).
• Producers: LyondellBasell (Pro-fax, Hostalen PP), Borealis, SABIC, ExxonMobil, Total Petrochemicals, Reliance.
• Applications: living-hinge closures (Tic Tac box, ammunition cases), automotive bumpers (PP-T20 + PP-T40 talc-filled), polypropylene fiber (BCF carpet, geotextile, surgical mesh Ethicon Prolene + B. Braun Optilene), food containers (microwaveable, autoclavable).

PVC — Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC-U rigid; PVC-P flexible)

• Suspension polymerization standard route; producers Westlake Chemical, Shintech, Formosa Plastics, Inovyn (INEOS), OxyVinyls.
• Rigid PVC-U: Tg ~80°C, E 2.5-4.2 GPa, UTS 50-80 MPa; pipes (ASTM D1785 schedule 40/80), siding, window profiles (Andersen + Pella + Marvin Integrity).
• Plasticized PVC-P: with DEHP, DINP, DOTP, ATBC (non-phthalate); Tg -20 to 60°C tunable; medical tubing + blood bags (Baxter, B. Braun), garden hoses, vinyl flooring (LVT luxury vinyl tile), automotive interior skins.
• EU REACH restrictions on DEHP since 2015 in medical-device applications.

PS — Polystyrene + EPS Expanded Polystyrene

• Tg 100°C, E 3.0-3.5 GPa, ρ 1.05, brittle (elongation 1-3%); transparent (>88% T 1mm).
• HIPS High-Impact PS — PB rubber-modified; impact 8-12 kJ/m² Charpy notched.
• EPS expanded with pentane blowing agent; ρ 16-40 kg/m³; building insulation + packaging.
• Producers: BASF Styrenics (sold to INEOS Styrolution 2014), Trinseo, Dow (sold styrenics to Trinseo 2017), Total.

PET — Polyethylene Terephthalate

• Tg 70°C, Tm 260°C, E 2.5-3.5 GPa, ρ 1.40, water absorption 0.3%.
• IV intrinsic viscosity 0.72-0.80 dL/g for bottle grade (CSD carbonated soft drinks + water); IV 0.60-0.65 for fiber.
• Bottle production: 2-step injection-stretch blow molding (ISBM) — Sidel, KHS, Krones; preform injection at Husky Injection Molding Systems machines; biaxially oriented for strain hardening.
• Recycle: rPET (recycled PET) — global infrastructure for bottle-to-bottle; Coca-Cola + PepsiCo 50% rPET targets by 2030.
• Producers: Indorama Ventures (largest), Alpek, Far Eastern New Century, JBF, Reliance, Nan Ya, Toray, Eastman.
• Fiber polyester: 60% of global synthetic textile fiber; staple + filament; Reliance, Tongkun, Hengyi, Shenghong, Indorama, Reliance, Wuxi Xingda.

PA66 — Polyamide 66 (nylon 6,6; hexamethylenediamine + adipic acid)

• Tg 60-80°C (dry) / 0-20°C (sat), Tm 264°C, E 2.0-3.5 GPa dry / 1.0-1.5 GPa saturated; water absorption 8.5% saturated, 2.5% @ 50% RH.
• Carothers (DuPont 1935); 1939 commercial under Nylon trademark.
• Applications: textile fiber + carpet (Invista Stainmaster, Mohawk SmartStrand competing PTT), under-the-hood auto (intake manifolds, radiator end tanks PA66-GF30/GF35), zip ties, gears.
• Producers: Invista (Koch — Nylon 66 trademark owner), Solvay, BASF (Ultramid A), Ascend Performance Materials, DOMO (acquired Solvay PA66 2020), Radici, Asahi Kasei (Leona).
• ADN adiponitrile supply: chronic structural shortage 2018-2022 forced specifications to substitute PA6/PA10/PA12 in some auto applications.

PA6 — Polyamide 6 (nylon 6; from ε-caprolactam ring-opening)

• Tg 50°C dry / -10°C sat, Tm 220°C, E 1.5-3.0 GPa, water absorption 9.5% sat.
• Slightly lower stiffness + Tm vs PA66; tougher.
• Applications: carpet fiber (Aquafil ECONYL recycled nylon, Antron), tire cord (truck + aircraft), monofilament.
• Producers: Lanxess Durethan, BASF Ultramid B, DOMO Technyl + Akulon, Shenma Industrial (China largest).

PA12 — Polyamide 12 (from ω-laurolactam)

• Tg 37°C, Tm 178°C, ρ 1.01 g/cm³, water absorption 1.5% sat — lowest of common nylons.
• Auto fuel + brake lines (resists fuel + low-temp impact); 3D-printing SLS standard (EOS PA2200 = PA12); ski boots, eyeglass frames.
• Producers: Evonik VESTAMID, Arkema Rilsan (PA11 castor-bean bio), UBE 3014U.

2. Engineering thermoplastics (semi-crystalline + amorphous, ~5% global volume but high-value)

PC — Polycarbonate (bisphenol-A polycarbonate)

• Amorphous; Tg 145°C, E 2.4 GPa, ρ 1.20, water absorption 0.15%, transparency 90% (1 mm), refractive index 1.585.
• Notched Izod impact 800 J/m (highest of any clear amorphous thermoplastic); ductile-brittle transition lowered by sample thickness (“thick-section embrittlement” >3 mm in stressed parts).
• Solvent: dissolved by dichloromethane (extrusion solvent welding), DMF, chloroform; chemical-attacked by amines, ketones (MEK acetone), strong bases. Concentrated H2SO4 attack.
• Trademarks: Lexan (SABIC, formerly GE Plastics — Daniel Fox 1953), Makrolon (Covestro, formerly Bayer — Hermann Schnell 1953 concurrently), Calibre (Trinseo), Panlite (Teijin), Iupilon (Mitsubishi Engineering Plastics).
• Applications: CD/DVD/Blu-ray (>95% global), eyeglass + safety glasses lenses, polycarbonate roofing (Lexan Thermoclear), machine guards, BPA-free baby-bottle alternatives spurred Tritan copolyester (Eastman), bulletproof + riot-shield laminates (PC + acrylic stack), helmets (motorcycle, ballistic), greenhouse glazing.

PMMA — Polymethyl Methacrylate (acrylic)

• Tg 105°C, E 3.0 GPa, ρ 1.18, transparency 92% (3 mm) — highest of any common thermoplastic; refractive index 1.49.
• Brittle: notched Izod 16-32 J/m. Lower impact than PC by ~25× but higher abrasion resistance + UV stability.
• Solvent: soluble in chloroform, MEK, ethyl acetate, acetone; attacked by aromatic + chlorinated hydrocarbons.
• Trademarks: Plexiglas (Röhm — now Trinseo, originally Otto Röhm 1933), Perspex (ICI, now Lucite International / Mitsubishi Chemical 1934), Acrylite (Evonik / Cyro), Altuglas (Arkema), Lucite (DuPont → Lucite International → Mitsubishi Chemical 2009).
• Applications: aquariums (Georgia Aquarium 33 m PMMA viewing tunnel; thickness up to 600 mm cast PMMA), aircraft canopies (F-15 + many GA), automotive tail lamp lenses, signage, dentures + dental fillings, bone cement (PMMA + radiopaque BaSO4 — Stryker Simplex P + Heraeus Palacos), point-of-sale display.

PBT — Polybutylene Terephthalate

• Tg 60°C, Tm 220-225°C, E 2.5 GPa, ρ 1.31.
• Faster crystallization than PET — preferred for injection molding (PET requires longer cooling).
• Glass-fiber PBT-GF30: E 9-10 GPa, UTS 130 MPa.
• Trademarks: Valox (SABIC), Crastin (DuPont, now Celanese), Ultradur (BASF), Pocan (Lanxess).
• Applications: electrical connectors (auto + appliance; Molex, Amphenol, TE Connectivity housings), under-hood auto, electric motor housings.

PSU — Polysulfone (UDEL polysulfone PSU; Union Carbide 1965)

• Amorphous; Tg 185°C, E 2.5 GPa, transparency 80% (1 mm amber), water absorption 0.6%; autoclavable (134°C steam) thousands of cycles.
• Trademarks: Udel (Solvay Specialty Polymers, ex-Amoco, ex-Union Carbide), Acudel modified PSU.
• Applications: hemodialysis hollow-fiber membranes (Fresenius, Asahi Kasei, Nipro — global ~150 M m²/y), medical autoclavable instrument trays, food-contact reusable, hot-water plumbing manifolds.

PES / PESU — Polyethersulfone

• Tg 220°C; transparency 65% amber; high-temperature autoclavable (≥150°C); inherent flame resistance (LOI 38%, UL94 V-0 without additives).
• Trademarks: Veradel (Solvay), Sumikaexcel (Sumitomo), Ultrason E (BASF).
• Applications: aircraft interiors (FAR 25.853 FST flame/smoke/toxicity compliant — Boeing + Airbus cabin panels, lavatory units), hot-water reusables, ultrafiltration + microfiltration membranes.

PPS — Polyphenylene Sulfide

• Semi-crystalline; Tg 88°C, Tm 285°C, E 4.0 GPa (neat), 14 GPa (GF40), ρ 1.35; LOI 47% inherent FR.
• Outstanding chemical resistance — solvents to 200°C (no known solvent below 200°C).
• Trademarks: Ryton (Solvay, originally Phillips Petroleum / Chevron Phillips), Fortron (Celanese / Polyplastics joint venture 1985), Torelina (Toray), DIC PPS (DIC).
• Applications: auto fuel system (Ford + GM fuel-pump housing PPS-GF40), under-hood pumps, exhaust gas recirculation EGR sensors, dishwasher pump impellers, oil + gas downhole electrical packers.

PEI — Polyetherimide

• Amorphous; Tg 217°C, E 3.0 GPa, transparency 36% amber, UL94 V-0 inherent, LOI 47%.
• Trademark: Ultem (SABIC, formerly GE Plastics — original Joseph Wirth 1982).
• Applications: aircraft interior panels + ducts (Boeing 787 ECS cabin air ducts), medical autoclavable surgical-instrument trays, semiconductor wafer carriers, FDM 3D printing engineering grade (Stratasys Ultem 9085 / 1010), high-temperature electronic connectors (military MIL-STD-202).

PEEK — Polyetheretherketone

• Semi-crystalline; Tg 143°C, Tm 343°C, E 3.6 GPa (neat) / 13 GPa (CF30), ρ 1.32, water absorption 0.5%.
• ICI Wilton UK 1978, commercial 1981; Victrex spun out 1993.
• Trademarks: Victrex PEEK, Solvay KetaSpire (PEEK) + AvaSpire (PAEK), Evonik VESTAKEEP (medical-grade PEEK including IMP implantable), Sabic LNP Lubriloy.
• Applications: spinal interbody cages + dental abutments (radiolucent vs Ti — Stryker Tritanium PEEK, NuVasive, Medtronic Capstone, Zimmer Biomet TM-Ariadne), aerospace structural brackets (787 ECS clamps), oil + gas downhole seals + back-up rings (Hi-PER PEEK), semiconductor wafer handling, FDA 510(k)-cleared cranial + craniomaxillofacial implants (Solvay Zeniva PEEK).
• 3D-printing: Apium P220 + 3DGence Industry F421 + Roboze Argo + Stratasys F900 PEEK; LPBF qualified at lower volume.

PEK + PEKK + PAEK family — variants of PEEK with different keto:ether ratios; higher Tg (PEK Tg 162°C, PEKK Tg 156°C); HexPEKK aerospace (Hexion); Arkema Kepstan PEKK.

PI — Polyimide (Kapton DuPont)

• Aromatic backbone (PMDA-ODA most common); Tg 360-410°C, decomposition >500°C.
• Trademark: Kapton (DuPont 1965), Apical (Kaneka), Upilex-S (Ube).
• Applications: flexible PCB substrate (smartphone display ribbon, automotive, satellite harness); thermal insulation blankets on satellites; Mars Pathfinder + Spirit + Opportunity + Curiosity + Perseverance solar arrays; James Webb Space Telescope sunshield (5 layers Kapton aluminum-coated).
• Thermoplastic polyimide grades: Aurum (Mitsui), PI-AdC (Manac); processable like PEEK.

POM — Polyoxymethylene (acetal)

• Semi-crystalline > 80% crystallinity; Tg -60°C, Tm 175°C (homopolymer Delrin), 165°C (copolymer Hostaform); E 3.2 GPa; very low friction coefficient + low creep + high creep recovery.
• Trademarks: Delrin homopolymer (originally DuPont, now Celanese 2023 acquisition), Hostaform / Celcon copolymer (Celanese / Polyplastics — formaldehyde + ethylene oxide ring comonomer for better thermal stability), Iupital (Mitsubishi Engineering Plastics), Tepcon (Korea Engineering Plastics).
• Applications: gears (printer + auto window regulator + cordless drill), automotive fuel-system internals (fuel sender flange, fuel pump rotor), conveyor chains, eyeglass-frame hinges, plumbing valve internals.

LCP — Liquid Crystal Polymer

• Aromatic polyester thermotropic LCP; Tg 60-100°C, Tm 280-400°C depending on grade; E 11-14 GPa (highly anisotropic — flow direction); near-zero CTE in flow direction.
• Trademarks: Vectra (Celanese / Polyplastics — TWP Type I HBA-HNA), Xydar (Solvay), Sumikasuper (Sumitomo Chemical), Zenite (DuPont, now Celanese), Laperos (Polyplastics).
• Applications: surface-mount electronic connectors (USB Type-C, smartphone Lightning, board-to-board fine-pitch 0.4 mm) where reflow soldering at 260°C is required; Apple iPhone 6+ adopted LCP smartphone antenna substrate 2017 replacing PI; cell + WiFi antenna substrate; ovenable cookware lid.

PPO/PPE — Polyphenylene Oxide / Polyphenylene Ether

• Pure PPE rarely sold; commercial product PPE+HIPS blend (“Noryl”) or PPE+PA66 blend (Noryl GTX).
• Tg 215°C neat, 130°C blend; impact-modified; UL94 V-0 with FR additive.
• Trademark: Noryl (SABIC, formerly GE Plastics — 1966), Lupoy (LG Chem).
• Applications: automotive exterior body panels (BMW i3 thermoplastic body), Plumbing manifolds, electrical breakers, EV battery enclosures.

ETFE — Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene

• Semi-crystalline; Tg -100°C, Tm 270°C, E 0.85 GPa, ρ 1.74, light transmission 90-95% (200 µm film).
• Trademarks: Tefzel (DuPont — now Chemours), Fluon ETFE (AGC formerly Asahi Glass), Dyneon ETFE (3M, now Solvay).
• Architectural film roofing: Allianz Arena Munich (Herzog & de Meuron 2005 — 1056 ETFE cushions, switches color RGB to denote home team), Beijing Water Cube / National Aquatic Center (2008 Olympics, 100 000 m² ETFE), Eden Project Cornwall (1999-2001, 16 ETFE cushion biome roof), Khan Shatyr Astana, US Bank Stadium Minneapolis, AT&T Stadium Dallas.
• Wire + cable jacketing (aircraft, semiconductor); low refractive index 1.40 for optical apps.

3. Fluoropolymers

PTFE — Polytetrafluoroethylene

• Crystallinity 50-75%; Tg -113°C, Tm 327°C, E 0.4 GPa, ρ 2.15-2.20, friction coefficient 0.05-0.10 (lowest of any solid material).
• Discovered by Roy Plunkett at DuPont 1938 accidentally; commercial 1946 (Teflon trademark).
• NOT melt-processable (melt viscosity ~10^10 Pa·s); processed by sintering compressed powder (paste extrusion + ram extrusion + isostatic molding) like a ceramic.
• Trademarks: Teflon (DuPont → Chemours 2015), Fluon (AGC), Dyneon (3M → Solvay 2024), Polyflon (Daikin).
• Applications: non-stick cookware (FDA-compliant; PFOA-free post-2015 Chemours GenX replacement of long-chain PFOA), chemical seals + gaskets + PTFE-lined pipe (chlorine, sulfuric, HF), thread sealant tape, wire insulation (mil-spec aerospace MIL-W-22759), expanded PTFE (ePTFE — W.L. Gore Gore-Tex membrane, Gore PTFE vascular grafts + suture).
• PFAS regulatory: EU REACH restriction proposal 2023; PFOA + PFOS Stockholm Convention.

PFA — Perfluoroalkoxy (Teflon PFA)

• Melt-processable (Tm 305°C, processable at 350-400°C); same chemical resistance as PTFE.
• Trademarks: Teflon PFA (Chemours), Neoflon PFA (Daikin), Hyflon PFA (Solvay).
• Applications: semiconductor wet-bench fluidics (FAB wafer handling), high-purity chemical tubing, lined valves.

FEP — Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene (TFE-HFP copolymer)

• Tm 260°C, lower Tm + melt-processable; transparent.
• Trademarks: Teflon FEP (Chemours), Neoflon FEP (Daikin), Hyflon FEP (Solvay).
• Applications: heat-shrink tubing, photovoltaic backsheet, fluorescent-tube outer sleeves.

PVDF — Polyvinylidene Fluoride

• Semi-crystalline; Tg -38°C, Tm 167-177°C, E 1.0-2.0 GPa, ρ 1.78.
• Polymorphism: α (most common, non-polar), β (polar, piezoelectric d33 ≈ -33 pC/N), γ.
• Piezoelectric β-phase produced by mechanical stretching + electrical poling; basis for the first commercial flexible piezoelectric film (Kureha 1969 — Heiji Kawai discovery).
• Trademarks: Kynar + Kynar Flex (Arkema), Solef (Solvay), HylarFlon (Solvay), Hyflon (Solvay).
• Applications: wire + cable jacketing (low-smoke plenum), Li-ion battery binder (cathode + separator coating — most-tonnage growth segment, ~50 000 t/y 2023 → projected 250 000 t/y 2030), water filtration membranes (Suez Memcor + Pall Microza + Asahi Kasei MUNC submerged hollow-fiber), architectural building paint (Hylar Kynar coil-coating + Hylar 5000 PVDF roofing finish), piezoelectric sensors + hydrophones.

ETFE — see §2.

PCTFE — Polychlorotrifluoroethylene

• Tg 45°C, Tm 211°C; outstanding moisture barrier (one of the lowest WVTR of any clear polymer ~0.025 g·mm/m²·day); blister-pack pharmaceutical (Honeywell Aclar).

FKM — Fluoroelastomer (Viton DuPont 1957 → Chemours)

• Vinylidene fluoride + HFP / TFE + other monomers; copolymer (Type A), terpolymer (Type B, GBL-S, GLT), tetrapolymer (Type GF-S, ETP, AED).
• Service temperature -20 to 230°C continuous; oil + fuel + chemical resistance.
• Trademarks: Viton (Chemours), Dai-El (Daikin), Tecnoflon (Solvay), Fluorel (3M Dyneon → Solvay).
• Applications: O-rings + lip seals + fuel-system seals (auto + aerospace), chemical-process gaskets, semiconductor wafer-handling tools.

4. Elastomers + rubbers

Most rubber tonnage globally is in tires; NR + SBR + BR dominate.

NR — Natural Rubber (cis-1,4-polyisoprene from Hevea brasiliensis)

• Tg -73°C, glass-transition tan δ peak gives wet-grip traction; biosynthetic stereoregular cis.
• Vulcanized with S + accelerator + ZnO; UTS 25-30 MPa cured; elongation 600-900%.
• Major source: SE Asia (Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia 80% of world supply); pricing volatile due to monoculture + leaf-blight risk (Microcyclus ulei devastated Amazonian plantations 1930s).
• Applications: heavy-truck tires (treads + carcass), aircraft tires (>99% NR — high-Tg silica-tread compounds), engine + transmission mounts, footwear soles, condoms + medical gloves (challenged by latex allergy → nitrile glove migration).

SBR — Styrene Butadiene Rubber

• Emulsion-SBR (eSBR, 23.5% styrene typical) or solution-SBR (sSBR, tuned styrene + vinyl content for Mag tunability of tan δ + rolling resistance).
• Tg -55 to -30°C tunable.
• Applications: passenger-car tire tread (sSBR dominates premium fuel-efficient tires — Michelin Energy Saver / Bridgestone Ecopia / Goodyear Assurance Fuel Max with silica-coupled sSBR); conveyor belts; shoe outsole.
• Producers: ARLANXEO (Saudi Aramco + Lanxess JV, now Saudi Aramco sole 2024), Synthos, JSR, ZEON, ENEOS Materials (formerly JSR).

BR — Polybutadiene Rubber

• High-cis BR ~96% cis-1,4 from Nd-catalyzed; Tg -107°C; lowest of any common rubber.
• Applications: blended with NR / SBR in tire treads + sidewalls (cut + chip resistance + abrasion), golf-ball cores (high-cis BR), shoe outsoles.

IIR — Isobutylene Isoprene Rubber (Butyl)

• Isobutylene + 0.5-2% isoprene for crosslinking; very low gas permeability — orders of magnitude lower than NR.
• Applications: tire inner liners (tubeless tire interior layer, retains pressure for ~3-6 mo without top-up), inner tubes, pharmaceutical vial stoppers (gray + black bromobutyl + chlorobutyl halobutyl stoppers — West Pharmaceutical Services + Aptar), chewing gum gum base.
• Producers: ExxonMobil Butyl (largest), Sibur, Arlanxeo, Reliance Industries.

EPDM — Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer

• Ethylene + propylene + diene (ENB ethylidene norbornene most common, DCPD dicyclopentadiene, VNB); peroxide or sulfur crosslinked.
• Tg -55°C; outstanding ozone + UV + weather resistance.
• Applications: automotive weatherstrips + door seals + cooling-system hoses, EPDM roof membrane (Firestone now Holcim, Carlisle SynTec), garden hoses (EPDM-reinforced), wire + cable jacket.
• Producers: ExxonMobil Vistalon, Dow Nordel, Lanxess Keltan, Sumitomo Esprene.

NBR — Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (acrylonitrile-butadiene)

• Acrylonitrile content 18-50%; higher ACN = better oil but worse cold flex.
• Applications: oilfield O-rings + lip seals + fuel-hose inner layer; nitrile disposable gloves displaced latex post-2000s (Top Glove, Hartalega, Kossan, Supermax in Malaysia produce >70% global supply; 400 B gloves/y industry); hydraulic seals.
• HNBR Hydrogenated NBR — Zetpol (ZEON), Therban (Arlanxeo); better thermal + ozone resistance.

FKM — see §3.

FFKM — Perfluoroelastomer (Kalrez DuPont → Chemours)

• Fully fluorinated backbone; service to 327°C; chemical inert.
• Trademarks: Kalrez (Chemours), Perlast (Precision Polymer Engineering / IDEX), Chemraz (Greene Tweed), Markez (Marco), Isolast (Trelleborg).
• Applications: semiconductor plasma-etch chamber O-rings + valve seats (Applied Materials, Lam Research, TEL — most-grade-stratified market), aerospace fluid-system seals at high temp, fuel-cell stack manifolds.
• Price: $5000-$15 000 per kg (vs FKM $50-100/kg;NBR$5-10/kg).

Silicone (PDMS polydimethylsiloxane)

• Si-O-Si backbone; Tg -120°C, service -60 to 200°C continuous (250°C intermittent), to 300°C high-consistency phenyl silicone.
• HCR High-Consistency Rubber (peroxide or platinum cure), LSR Liquid Silicone Rubber (platinum addition cure, two-component injection molded), RTV Room-Temperature Vulcanizing (one-part moisture-cure or two-part).
• Trademarks: Silastic (Dow Corning, now Dow), Elastosil + Geniomer (Wacker), Silopren (Momentive, formerly GE Silicones), KE-Series (Shin-Etsu, the global #1 silicones maker by capacity).
• Applications: medical implants (DePuy + Stryker breast implants — checkered history with Dow Corning bankruptcy 1995, recovered + redesigned), pacemaker leads + body, baking molds, gaskets + O-rings, optical encapsulation of LED + photodiode (high-refractive-index phenyl silicone n=1.55), ophthalmic IOL intraocular lenses (Alcon AcrySof + J&J Tecnis hybrid acrylic-silicone).

TPE — Thermoplastic Elastomers (thermoplastic processable, no vulcanization)

• SBS styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer — Kraton D (Kraton — Shell origin, now Kraton Polymers / Kuraray 2022); adhesives + asphalt modification + footwear.
• SEBS styrene-ethylene/butylene-styrene — Kraton G + Septon (Kuraray); medical tubing + overmolded grips + automotive instrument-panel skins.
• TPU thermoplastic polyurethane — Lubrizol Pellethane / Estane / Texin, Covestro Desmopan / Texin, BASF Elastollan; films + sport (Adidas Boost EVA-TPU foam), cable jackets, transparent armor interlayers.
• TPV thermoplastic vulcanizate (dynamically vulcanized EPDM-in-PP matrix) — Santoprene (ExxonMobil, originally Monsanto Advanced Elastomer Systems 1981), Sarlink (Teknor Apex), Forprene (SOLVAY); auto weatherstrip integral seals.
• COPE copolyester elastomer — Hytrel (DuPont → Celanese), Arnitel (DSM Engineering → Envalior); auto CVJ boots, oil-resistant tubing.
• COPA copolyamide elastomer — Pebax (Arkema); athletic shoe midsoles, ski-boot shells, medical tubing.
• MPR melt-processable rubber — DuPont Alcryn (legacy).

PU — Polyurethane Cast Elastomer (thermoset, distinct from TPU)

• MDI / TDI prepolymer + MOCA / BDO chain extender; Shore A 60-D 75 hardness range; tunable.
• Applications: skateboard + forklift + heavy-truck cabin wheels (cast PU 92A typical); drive belts (timing + V); roller covers (printing + paper-mill); mining-equipment liners (abrasion 5-10× over rubber).
• Producers: Covestro (Baulé), Era Polymers, Polyurethane Specialties, Chemtura LF Industries.

5. Biodegradable + bio-based polymers

PLA — Polylactic Acid / Polylactide

• From lactic acid via fermentation of corn dextrose (NatureWorks Blair NE Cargill / PTT-GC joint venture); ring-opening polymerization of lactide (cyclic dimer).
• Stereochemistry: PLLA L-isomer (Tm 175°C, Tg 60°C), PDLA D-isomer; sc-PLA stereocomplex (50:50 PLLA/PDLA Tm 230°C).
• E 3.5 GPa, UTS 60 MPa, brittle (elongation 6%), ρ 1.24, water absorption 0.5%.
• Compostable: requires industrial composting at 55-70°C, 70% RH (ASTM D6400 / EN 13432); NOT home-compostable, NOT marine-degradable.
• Trademark: Ingeo (NatureWorks 2002-current; Cargill spinout), Luminy (TotalEnergies-Corbion 50/50 JV, Rayong Thailand; bioplant), PURALACT (Corbion).
• Applications: 3D-printing FFF/FDM #1 material globally (Prusament, eSUN, Polymaker, Hatchbox); rigid food packaging (compostable cups + cutlery at coffee chains), agricultural mulch film, medical sutures (degrades 6-12 mo), 3D-printed bioabsorbable scaffolds.

PHA — Polyhydroxyalkanoates (bacterial-fermented bioplastics)

• Synthesized by bacteria (Cupriavidus necator + recombinant E. coli) as intracellular carbon storage; degraded in soil + marine + anaerobic conditions including marine.
• PHB poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) — most-studied; brittle.
• PHBV poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) — Tepha + Bio-on (defunct 2019); HV comonomer 3-22% softens.
• PHBH poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) — Kaneka AONILEX (Japan, sole industrial PHBH producer ~5 kt/y 2024).
• Producers: Danimer Scientific (PHA-based Nodax PHA, USA), CJ BIO (CheilJedang, Korea — PHACT brand), Mango Materials (USA, methane-fed), Cove Bio (USA), Newlight (Cove + AirCarbon CA), Bio-on (defunct).
• Applications: marine-degradable straws + cutlery + films; food packaging early stage; medical implant absorbable (TephaFLEX poly-4-hydroxybutyrate FDA-cleared P4HB sutures + meshes — Tepha now Becton Dickinson).

PCL — Polycaprolactone

• Tg -60°C, Tm 60°C, E 0.4 GPa (rubbery at RT), ρ 1.15.
• Trademark: CAPA (Ingevity → Perstorp), Mowiflex / SmartGrade.
• Applications: hand-formable orthopedic + pediatric casting (Polymorph + Plastimake hobby + Smith+Nephew cast tape; warm-water moldable at 60°C); thermoset reactive adhesives + hot-melt; drug-eluting bioresorbable (LUX Bio P4HB / PCL ear-tube vents).

PBS — Polybutylene Succinate

• Tg -32°C, Tm 113°C; compostable; oil + bio routes available.
• Producers: PTT MCC Biochem (Bangkok), Showa Denko (BioPBS), Mitsubishi Chemical, Indonesia Petrochemical.

Starch blends (TPS thermoplastic starch + biodegradable copolyester PBAT)

• Mater-Bi (Novamont Italy, Catia Bastioli founder) — starch + PBAT blend; carrier bags Italy + EU under disposable single-use directive.
• Ecoflex (BASF PBAT poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)) — blended with TPS or PLA; compostable trash + agricultural film.

Regenerated cellulose

• Lyocell / Tencel (Lenzing AT) — NMMO N-methylmorpholine N-oxide solvent direct dissolution + air-gap wet spinning; closed-loop solvent recovery >99.5%; lower environmental impact than viscose; UTS 35-40 cN/tex; apparel + technical textile.
• Viscose / Rayon — CS2 + NaOH xanthation route 1890s; cellulose I converted to cellulose II; CS2 toxic (industrial hygiene legacy challenges); ~5 Mt/y global, India + China + Indonesia dominant; producers Lenzing Modal + Birla Cellulose + Sateri + Tangshan Sanyou.
• Cuprammonium rayon (cupro) — Asahi Kasei Bemberg; cotton-linter source + Cu-NH3 solvent.

6. Bioabsorbable medical polymers

The bioabsorbable family is engineered to hydrolyze in physiological saline + tissue + enzymatic environment; degradation timescales tunable from days (PGA) to years (PLLA, PCL).

• PGA poly(glycolic acid) — Tg 35°C, Tm 225°C, E 7 GPa; Dexon braided suture (Davis+Geck 1970) — first FDA-cleared synthetic absorbable suture; degrades ~4 weeks; replaced by PLGA copolymers (Vicryl Ethicon J&J — PLGA 90:10, Polysorb / Sofsilk Medtronic).
• PLA (PLLA) — degrades 12-24 mo; bone fixation (Inion Cps, Bioretec, Smith+Nephew SmartTack); polymeric stent (Abbott Absorb GT1 BVS — bioresorbable vascular scaffold first approved 2012, withdrawn from market 2017 due to higher MACE major adverse cardiac events vs Xience drug-eluting metal stent at 3-year follow-up).
• PLGA copolymers — degradation 4-26 weeks tunable by LA:GA ratio + MW; controlled drug release (Lupron Depot AbbVie injectable leuprolide microspheres, Sandostatin LAR octreotide), nerve guides (Synovis NeuraGen / Integra LifeSciences NeuraWrap), scaffolds.
• P4HB poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (Tepha / Becton Dickinson) — TephaFLEX monofilament suture + Galaflex surgical mesh (hernia, abdominal wall).
• Mg-WE43 metallic bioresorbable (Biotronik Magmaris stent) — non-polymer but the closest absorbable competitor to BVS; Mg-Y-Nd alloy; CE mark 2016, withdrawn from active market in EU 2021 for second-generation revision (DREAMS Plus). See biomaterials.
• Drug-eluting beads — DC Bead (BTG / Boston Scientific), HepaSphere (Merit Medical), Embozene (Boston Scientific) for transarterial chemoembolization TACE — load doxorubicin + irinotecan + epirubicin.

7. Specialty high-performance polymers

Aramids (aromatic polyamides)

• Kevlar (p-aramid PPTA poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide)) — discovered Stephanie Kwolek (DuPont 1965); lyotropic liquid-crystalline solution in concentrated H2SO4 + air-gap wet spinning. Tg ~370°C decomposition; UTS 3.6 GPa (Kevlar 49), E 124 GPa; ρ 1.44.
• Twaron (Teijin / Teijin Aramid, ex-Akzo Nobel) — p-aramid same chemistry as Kevlar.
• Nomex (m-aramid MPIA poly(m-phenylene isophthalamide)) — DuPont 1967; thermally stable to 370°C, decomposes without melting; LOI 30%, no flame propagation. Tg 280°C.
• Heracron (Kolon Industries Korea), Technora (Teijin co-polyamide).
• Applications: ballistic + stab vests (Type IIIA NIJ + soft armor, Honeywell Spectra Shield), aircraft tires (Kevlar plies replace steel in radial passenger tires + aircraft), aerospace honeycomb core (Nomex honeycomb in Boeing + Airbus floor panels + radomes; HexWeb Nomex by Hexcel), firefighter turnout gear (Nomex), oil + gas mooring rope, brake pad reinforcement (asbestos replacement).

UHMWPE — Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene

• Mw 3.5-6 million g/mol; gel-spun fiber crystallinity 85-95%; UTS 3.5 GPa (Dyneema SK99), E 110 GPa.
• Trademarks: Dyneema (DSM, now Avient Performance Polymers), Spectra (Honeywell), Tensylon (DuPont).
• Applications: ballistic armor (soft + composite hard), high-cut-resistance gloves (food + glass + sheet metal handling), fishing braid + sailing line + crane sling, hip + knee implant tibial + acetabular bearing (XLPE crosslinked highly-crosslinked-polyethylene polished against CoCrMo or oxidized-Zr femoral component — Zimmer Biomet Vivacit-E, Stryker X3, DePuy AltrX, Smith+Nephew XLPE).

PBO — Poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole)

• Toyobo Zylon (1998); UTS 5.8 GPa, E 270 GPa — highest tensile of any commercial polymer fiber.
• Ballistic vest controversy 2003-2005 (Second Chance Body Armor Zylon vests degraded faster than expected; US DOJ-NIJ standards updated 2005). Applications now restricted to military + composite + sailing yacht rigging where UV exposure can be controlled.

8. Conductive polymers (intrinsically conducting polymers, ICPs)

Heeger + MacDiarmid + Shirakawa 2000 Nobel for “discovery and development of conductive polymers” (polyacetylene doped with I2 reaching 10^3 S/cm 1977).

• PEDOT:PSS poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) — water-dispersed conductive polymer; coatings 200-500 S/cm.
  • Trademark: Clevios (Heraeus, originally Bayer), Orgacon (AGFA-Gevaert), Plextronics PEDOT (legacy).
  • Applications: OLED hole-injection layer + transparent conductor (Samsung Display + LG Display panel HIL); printed electronics; antistatic coating; organic photovoltaic OPV electrode; capacitive touch.
• Polyaniline (PANI) — emeraldine salt conductive 1-100 S/cm; corrosion protection coatings (Crosslink Technology + PolyOne legacy).
• Polypyrrole (PPy) — 10^2-10^3 S/cm; biosensor + drug release.
• Polyacetylene — original conductive polymer; air-unstable; rarely commercial.

For semiconducting (not conducting) polymers used in OLED + OPV emissive + active layers see π-conjugated polymers like P3HT poly(3-hexylthiophene) regio-regular (Merck Sepiolid + Rieke Metals + Plextronics legacy), PCDTBT, PCBM acceptor.

9. Filler + reinforcement systems

Engineering polymers are mostly sold as compounded grades — neat resin + filler. Reinforcement grade designation: e.g. PA66-GF30 = PA66 + 30 wt% glass fiber chop.

Glass fiber (E-glass, S-glass, R-glass)

• Chop-strand 3-12 mm length; surface coupling with γ-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (Z-6020) for PA + PE-MAH for PP-GF.
• Property impact: PA66-GF50 (E 16 GPa, UTS 230 MPa, density 1.57 — vs neat PA66 E 3 GPa); PEEK-GF30; PPS-GF40; PA6-GF30.
• Producers: Owens Corning, Jushi Group (CN largest), Nippon Electric Glass, Saint-Gobain Vetrotex, AGY (S-glass aerospace), NEG, PPG Industries (sold glass fiber to Nippon Electric Glass 2017).

Carbon fiber (PAN-based + pitch-based)

• PAN-based Tenax (Teijin / Toho), Torayca T700 / T800S / T1000G / T1100G / IM7 / IM10 (Toray, ~50% global capacity), Hexcel IM7 / HM63 / AS4, Mitsubishi Chemical Pyrofil, SGL Carbon SIGRAFIL, Cytec / Solvay Thornel.
• Pitch-based Mitsubishi Chemical Dialead K13D / K13C / K13C2U / K13C6U (ultra-high modulus E 935 GPa for satellite optical benches).
• Chop or continuous; long-fiber thermoplastic (LFT) PA66-CF30 or PA-CF40 PEEK-CF30 wear pump components.

Graphite, carbon nanotubes, graphene

• Graphite — heat dissipation + electrical filler; producers Imerys (Asbury), Sigrafine SGL, Superior Graphite, GrafTech.
• CNT carbon nanotubes — OCSiAl Tuball multi-wall (Russia / Luxembourg HQ — industrial-scale 75 t/y first); CNANO Technology; Arkema Graphistrength; Nanocyl (Sk Innovation); LG Chem (Korea expanding 2024-2025 CNT capacity for Li-ion battery conductive additive).
• Graphene + graphene oxide (GO) + reduced GO (rGO) — Hummers (1958) + modified Hummers oxidation routes; CVD on Cu foil for monolayer (~2.6×10^7 m^2/y production capacity at Graphenea + 2D Carbon Tech + Bluestone Global Tech). Applications: conductive ink (Vorbeck), composite electrode, sensors.

Mineral fillers (low-cost stiffness + heat resistance + nucleation)

• Talc (PP-T20 / T40 talc for auto interior + bumper, Imerys + Mondo Minerals — Magna Carta of impact-PP).
• Calcium carbonate (CaCO3 + nano-CaCO3) — Imerys + Omya + Mississippi Lime; PP + PE blown film cost extender.
• Mica (PP-MICA) — Imerys Suzorite mica.
• Silica (precipitated SiO2 + fumed SiO2) — Evonik Aerosil + Cabot Cab-O-Sil + Wacker HDK + Solvay Tixosil; tire tread silica-coupled compound, RTV silicone reinforcement.

Nano-clay (organomontmorillonite)

• Cloisite (Southern Clay Products, now BYK Additives + Instruments / Altana) — alkylammonium-modified montmorillonite for PP + PA + PET nano-composites; barrier improvement + heat-deflection raise (Toyota 1993 Camry timing-belt cover PA6-nanoclay).
• Nanocor (Amcol → MTI → BYK) — same chemistry.

10. Property quick-reference table (selected grades)

Grade	Tg (°C)	Tm (°C)	E (GPa)	UTS (MPa)	ρ (g/cm³)	H2O (%)	Service Tcont (°C)
LDPE	-110	110	0.2	10	0.92	0.01	70
HDPE	-120	135	1.0	25	0.96	0.01	90
PP	-10	165	1.5	35	0.90	0.02	110
PVC rigid	80	—	3.0	55	1.40	0.1	60
PS	100	—	3.2	45	1.05	0.05	75
PET	70	260	3.0	60	1.40	0.3	110
PA66 (dry)	70	264	3.0	80	1.14	2.5 @ 50RH	110
PC	145	—	2.4	65	1.20	0.15	120
PMMA	105	—	3.0	75	1.18	0.3	80
POM	-60	175	3.2	70	1.42	0.25	100
PPS	88	285	4.0	85	1.35	0.02	220
PEI Ultem	217	—	3.0	105	1.27	0.25	170
PEEK	143	343	3.6	100	1.32	0.5	250
PI Kapton	380	—	2.5	175	1.42	1.4	400
PTFE	-113	327	0.4	25	2.17	0.01	260
PVDF	-38	175	1.6	50	1.78	0.04	150
FKM Viton	-20	—	0.006	15 (cured)	1.85	0.5	230
Silicone HCR	-120	—	0.001-0.01	4-10 (cured)	1.13	0.2	200
Nitinol (NiTi 50:50)	n/a metal	1310	50-83 GPa	800-1500 MPa	6.5	0	-50 to 80 (Mf)

Notes: silicones + elastomers report cured tensile + Shore hardness rather than amorphous E; PA66 modulus is strongly humidity-dependent (drops from 3.0 to 1.0 GPa fully saturated); PEEK + PPS modulus given for neat resin (CF/GF grades 4-5× higher); Nitinol is included for cross-reference in 10. Specialty + emerging metallic systems.

11. Processing-window snapshot

• Injection molding dominant for engineering thermoplastics. Melt temp window: PA66 285-300°C, PC 290-320°C, PEEK 380-400°C, PEI 360-410°C, PPS 320-340°C. Mold temp: amorphous (PC + PMMA + ABS) 80-120°C; semi-crystalline must be hot enough to crystallize (PA66 + PBT 80°C, PEEK 180-200°C, PPS 130-150°C).
• Extrusion for film + sheet + pipe + profile + cable jacket. PE blown film, PP cast film, PET sheet thermoforming.
• Compression molding PTFE (sintered after compression) + rubber.
• Blow molding PET stretch-blow (bottles 2-step ISBM), HDPE extrusion blow (drums + fuel tanks).
• Rotational molding LLDPE + crosslinkable PE tanks (water storage, kayaks).
• Thermoforming PET-G + PS + ABS + PMMA + PC sheet drape + vacuum + plug-assist.
• FFF/FDM 3D-printing: PLA 190-220°C, PETG 240°C, ABS 240-250°C, Nylon 240-260°C, PC 280°C, PEEK 380-420°C with chamber 90-180°C.
• SLS Selective Laser Sintering: PA12 (EOS PA2200), PA11 (Arkema Rilsan), PEKK (Arkema Kepstan), TPU.
• SLA + DLP photopolymer UV-cure acrylate + epoxy + thiol-ene resins (Formlabs + 3D Systems + Carbon CLIP + Origin).
• Autoclave compression molding for high-Tg aerospace composites (177°C cure epoxy with carbon fiber prepreg; 350-400°C PEEK thermoplastic consolidation).

12. Solvent + chemical resistance snapshot

• PE / PP — inert to most aqueous + alcohols + dilute acids/bases at RT; swells in xylene + decalin > 60°C; chemical-attacked by oxidizing acids (concentrated HNO3, fuming H2SO4).
• PVC — resists dilute acids + bases + aliphatic hydrocarbons; dissolved by THF + cyclohexanone; attacked by aromatic + ketones + esters.
• PC — soluble in dichloromethane (basis for solvent welding); attacked by amines, ketones (acetone, MEK), strong bases.
• PMMA — soluble in chloroform, ethyl acetate, MEK; attacked by aromatic + chlorinated.
• PA (nylon) — soluble in formic acid + m-cresol + concentrated H2SO4; resistant to oils + greases + fuels + aliphatic; weakened by water absorption.
• POM — resists most solvents; attacked by strong acids + bases + oxidizers.
• PPS — no known solvent below 200°C; one of the most chemical-resistant thermoplastics.
• PEEK — soluble only in concentrated H2SO4 + concentrated HNO3 + methanesulfonic acid; resistant to all common solvents.
• PTFE / PFA / FEP — inert to virtually all chemicals (only molten alkali metals + elemental fluorine attack); also non-stick.
• PVDF — resists most acids + hydrocarbons; attacked by strong bases (NaOH) + amines + concentrated acetone.
• Silicone — resistant to water + dilute acid/base + alcohols; swells in nonpolar hydrocarbons (toluene, gasoline); attacked by concentrated acid + base.
• EPDM — resistant to water + steam + glycol coolant + dilute acid/base + polar solvents; attacked by hydrocarbons + oils + fuels (use NBR/FKM instead).
• NBR — resistant to oils + fuels + hydraulic fluids; attacked by ozone + UV + polar solvents (ketones, esters).

Adjacent

• Upward: Tier 3 Family Index; _index cluster MOC.
• Conceptual: mechanical-behavior-of-materials for glass transition, viscoelasticity, time-temperature superposition, semi-crystalline deformation, craze + shear-band fracture; crystallography-phase-diagrams for polymer crystallization, spherulite morphology, equilibrium melt + glass.
• Characterization: characterization-methods — DSC for Tg + Tm + crystallinity, DMA for storage/loss modulus + Tg, TGA decomposition, GPC for MW + MWD, FTIR + Raman + solid-state NMR + WAXS for structure.
• Bio: biomaterials — implant polymers (UHMWPE bearings, PEEK cages, PLGA sutures + scaffolds, silicone implants, PVDF mesh, PMMA bone cement).
• Sibling Tier 3: alloy-and-superalloy-catalog — companion catalog for metals.
• Cross-cluster: Engineering Tier 2 / Tier 3 notes on polymer processing (extrusion + injection screw design, gate + runner balancing, mold filling Moldflow + Autodesk Moldflow + Sigmasoft Virtual Molding), composite layup + autoclave, and FFF/SLS/SLA additive manufacturing process windows.