Compendium

Surface Treatments — Family Index

16 min read

Surface Treatments — Family Index

Surface treatments modify the outer 1 nm – 1 mm of a part to add a property the bulk lacks: corrosion protection, wear resistance, fatigue life, decorative appearance, electrical conduction or insulation, biocompatibility, anti-galling, friction control, or thermal management. The bulk substrate is chosen for strength/cost; the surface is engineered separately. Almost every engineered metal part receives at least one surface treatment between machining and shipping.

1. At a glance

By purpose:

  • Corrosion protection — Zn / Zn-Ni plate, Cd, galvanize, anodize + seal, chromate, paint, FBE, TSA, EN, organic top-coats.
  • Wear protection — hard-chrome, hardcoat anodize, nitride, carburize, PVD TiN/AlTiN/DLC, HVOF WC-Co, EN-SiC.
  • Appearance — Type II dyed anodize, decorative chrome, PVD TiN gold, powder-coat, paint, black-oxide, brass.
  • Fatigue improvement — shot peen, laser peen, roller burnish, nitride (compressive case + hard).
  • Friction control — DLC, MoS₂, PTFE-EN, hard-anodize + PTFE impregnation, phosphate + oil.
  • Electrical conduction — Ag, Au, Sn, Cu plate; ENIG (Ni + immersion Au).
  • Electrical insulation — anodize, parylene, powder-coat epoxy, ceramic PEO.
  • Thermal — YSZ thermal-barrier coat (TBC) on turbine combustor/blades; high-emissivity black-anodize on radiators.
  • Anti-galling — Ag plate (cryo fittings), Cu plate, Cd plate, nitride.
  • Biocompatible — Ti PEO/MAO, hydroxyapatite (HA) plasma-spray on Ti implants, Ag-doped EN.

By process family:

  • Chemical / electrochemical — anodize, plate (electro + electroless), conversion-coat, passivate, etch.
  • Thermal — through-harden, case-harden (carburize, carbonitride), nitride, induction-harden.
  • Mechanical — shot peen, laser peen, blast, roller burnish, abrasive-flow.
  • Thin-film (sub-µm – few µm) — PVD, CVD, ALD, parylene.
  • Thick-film (10 µm – mm) — thermal spray (APS / VPS / HVOF / cold spray), wet paint, powder coat, E-coat, FBE, hot-dip galvanize.

2. Anodizing (Al, Ti, Mg)

Electrolytic oxidation grows a controlled oxide layer integral with the substrate. Aluminum is the canonical use case; Ti, Mg, and Zr also anodize.

  • Type I chromic-acid (CAA / CCAA) — ~2-5 µm, low fatigue knock-down, low electrolyte attack. Aerospace skins, riveted assemblies. Specified by MIL-A-8625 Type I (now MIL-PRF-8625). Tartaric-sulfuric (TSA) is the modern Cr-free replacement (Airbus AIPI 02-01-003).
  • Type II sulfuric — 5-25 µm, the architectural / consumer workhorse. Per MIL-PRF-8625 Type II and ISO 7599. Dyed pre-seal for color (gold, blue, black, red); electrolytic coloring with Sn or Ni salts gives bronze-to-black architectural finish (Anolok, Kalcolor).
  • Type III hardcoat sulfuric — 25-100+ µm, run cold (0-5 °C) at higher current density. Apparent hardness 60+ HRC (file-test). Used on small-arms slides (Glock, FN), pistons in pneumatic cylinders, valve bodies, optical mounts. MIL-PRF-8625 Type III.
  • Sealing — hot DI-water seal (95-100 °C, hydrates pore mouth, slow), mid-T nickel-acetate seal (85 °C), cold seal (Ni-F at room T, fast, lower clarity). Sealing is what gives anodize its corrosion rating.
  • PAA (phosphoric-acid anodize) — bondline pretreat for adhesive structural bonding of Al composites (BAC5555, Boeing 777 honeycomb skins). The phorphate-pore morphology gives mechanical interlock for epoxy primer (BR-127).

Mg anodizing — Tagnite, Keronite PEO (plasma electrolytic oxidation), MIL-M-45202 — ceramic-like 10-50 µm MgO/Mg-spinel layer.

Ti anodizing — Type II anodize for color (medical Ti instrument color-coding, no dye, interference at 10-100 nm); PEO/MAO for thicker 20-50 µm porous TiO₂ for HA bonding on implants.

3. Conversion coatings

Chemical (no current) conversion of substrate metal into an integral salt layer; usually a paint primer / passivation.

  • Chromate conversion on Al (CCC) — yellow (high Cr, max corrosion 168+ h salt spray bare), olive-drab, clear. MIL-DTL-5541 Class 1A (corrosion) or 3 (electrical). Hexavalent Cr⁶⁺ formulations (Alodine 1200S, Iridite 14-2) banned under EU REACH and US OSHA tightening; replaced by trivalent Cr³⁺ (SurTec 650 Chromitec, Alodine 5700/T-5900RTU, Iridite NCP, Bonderite M-CR T 5900).
  • Zinc phosphate (BIW) — automotive body-in-white pretreat ahead of E-coat. Bonderite (Henkel), Chemfos (PPG-Atotech), Granodine. Crystalline Zn-Ca-Mn phosphate ~2-3 µm thick.
  • Iron phosphate — light-duty paint pretreat for indoor steel (appliances, shelving). Faster, cheaper, lower corrosion than Zn phosphate.
  • Manganese phosphate — Parkerizing on small-arms (USGI M1 Garand, AK barrels, Glock recoil rod). 8-15 µm porous Mn-phosphate that retains oil; MIL-DTL-16232 Type M. Black-grey, matte, low-glare.
  • Black-oxide (Fe₃O₄) — caustic Fe₃O₄ on steel tooling and decorative; MIL-DTL-13924 Class 1 (caustic 140 °C), Class 4 (cold, single-coat). Magnetite layer 1-3 µm; oil-finished. Common on drill bits, taps, fixtures, small-arms internals.
  • Ti / Mg / Zr PEO / MAO — plasma electrolytic oxidation, 50-200 µm ceramic-like oxide (TiO₂ rutile + anatase; MgO + Mg₂SiO₄). Keronite, Tagnite, Microplasmic.

4. Electroplating

Electrodeposition of metal cations from solution. Lower-T than thermal spray, higher control than dip-galvanize, broader metal palette than CVD/PVD.

  • Zinc plate — 5-25 µm Zn + chromate or Cr³⁺ passivate. Yellow / black / clear / blue passivate. ASTM B633 Class Fe/Zn 5 (5 µm), 8 (8 µm), 12, 25. Auto fasteners, general-industrial.
  • Zinc-nickel (Zn-Ni) — 12-15 % Ni alloy, dramatic improvement over plain Zn: 720-1000 h salt-spray to red rust. Aerospace fastener, brake-line fitting; replacing Cd. AMS 2417, ASTM B841.
  • Zinc-iron, zinc-cobalt — intermediate corrosion/cost; auto under-hood.
  • Cadmium — Cd offers galvanic protection + low-galling + low contact resistance + neutral salt spray > 96 h at 8 µm. MIL-STD-870. Toxic; restricted under REACH consumer SVHC; aerospace landing-gear and weapons still use it (waiver). Replaced by Zn-Ni or aluminum vapor-deposit (IVD-Al per MIL-DTL-83488).
  • Nickel — sulfamate-bath for low-stress thick build-up (mold repair, electroforming), bright (decorative), Watts (workhorse), Ni-W high-T. Ni undercoat for Cr and Au.
  • Chromium — decorative thin (decorative chrome, 0.2-1 µm Cr over Cu-Ni-Cr stack, on auto trim; transitioning from Cr⁶⁺ to Cr³⁺); hard-chrome (50-500 µm, 65-70 HRC) on hydraulic rams, crankshafts, printing rolls, gun bores; MIL-STD-1501. Hard-chrome is HVOF-WC-Co replaced for landing gear (REACH).
  • Copper — under-plate for Ni or for high-frequency RF skin (low loss); decorative; printed-circuit board.
  • Tin and tin-lead — solderability (lead-free Sn for RoHS, matte Sn with whisker mitigation). Tin-bronze and tin-zinc for connector finishes.
  • Gold — 0.05-2 µm hard-Au (Co or Ni hardened, 130-200 HV) for connector mating surfaces (MIL-G-45204); soft-Au for bondability and corrosion. ASTM B488.
  • Silver — high-current bus-bar, RF; anti-galling on cryo and high-T threaded joints (Inconel bolts in turbine).
  • Specialty — black-Ni (decorative + low IR reflectance optical), brass, palladium (Pd-Ni for connector replacing Au).

5. Electroless nickel (EN)

Auto-catalytic Ni-P from a hypophosphite-reduced bath; no current, so deposit is conformal across complex geometry — the key differentiator from electroplated Ni.

  • Low-P (1-3 % P) — magnetic, hardest as-plated, post-bake → 1000 HV. Wear.
  • Mid-P (5-9 %) — workhorse, good corrosion + wear balance.
  • High-P (10-13 %) — amorphous, non-magnetic, max corrosion (1000+ h salt spray); food + valve + chemical process.
  • EN-PTFE composite — 20-25 vol% PTFE particles co-deposited, low coefficient of friction (0.05-0.10), self-lubricating; mold-release, food contact.
  • EN-SiC, EN-diamond — hard-particle composite, wear-test parts, journal sleeves.
  • EN-boron (NiB) — alternative to EN-P; harder, used in some firearm refinishes (Nibx, Robar NP3).

Specs: MIL-DTL-26074, ASTM B733, ISO 4527. Heat treatment at 400 °C/1 h post-plate → max hardness, max wear.

6. PVD (physical vapor deposition)

Sub-µm to 5 µm films deposited in vacuum by sputter, cathodic arc, or evaporation, with reactive gas (N₂, CH₄) to form nitrides, carbides, oxides.

  • TiN — gold colored, decorative + cutting-tool standard, 2300 HV, max use T ~500 °C.
  • TiCN — multilayer with TiN, lower friction, mid-T.
  • TiAlN / AlTiN — high-Al variant, max use T 800-900 °C, alumina-forming, standard for milling HRC 45+ steels. Balzers Balinit FUTURA NANO.
  • AlCrN — Cr-based, higher oxidation-T 1100 °C, dry-milling hardened die steel. Balzers Balinit ALCRONA.
  • CrN — corrosion + Al-machining (no Ti-Al affinity), food and medical instruments.
  • DLC (diamond-like carbon) — ta-C (tetrahedral) or a-C:H (hydrogenated). 1500-3000 HV, low friction 0.05-0.15 dry, low-T deposit (200 °C). Engine valve-train, fuel-injector pintle, drivetrain dog-clutch. Oerlikon Balzers Balinit DLC, IHI Hauzer.
  • ZrN — lighter gold than TiN, decorative medical.
  • TiB₂ — non-ferrous (Al, Cu) machining, no Ti-Al weld.
  • Equipment vendors — Oerlikon Balzers, IHI Hauzer, CemeCon, Plansee, Kurt J. Lesker, Veeco.

7. CVD (chemical vapor deposition)

Higher-T (700-1100 °C) than PVD, thicker (5-20 µm), more conformal, columnar grain. The classic carbide-insert coating.

  • TiN-TiCN-Al₂O₃-TiN — Sandvik GC4325 / GC4425, Kennametal KCM35, Mitsubishi MC6035 — multilayer on WC-Co inserts for steel turning. α-Al₂O₃ layer is the heat-shield.
  • Diamond CVD — polycrystalline diamond on Si or WC, drills for CFRP, dressers, optical windows. Element Six, sp3 Diamond Tech.
  • CVI (chemical vapor infiltration) — densifies CMC preforms (SiC-SiC composite turbine blade, brake pad). GE-Aviation, Safran-CeraMC.
  • Plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD) — lower-T (200-400 °C) for semi-passivation (SiN, SiO₂), MEMS, AR coatings.

8. ALD (atomic layer deposition)

Self-limiting sequential gas-phase reactions; 0.1-1 nm/cycle, ultra-conformal even on high-aspect features. Used in semi (gate dielectric HfO₂, Al₂O₃ pin-hole-free corrosion barrier on MEMS, sensors, additively manufactured Ti and Inconel). Beneq, Picosun, Veeco. Slow (1 nm/min average), expensive, but enables thicknesses no other process matches.

9. Thermal spray (thick-film, 50 µm – mm)

Particles melted/softened and accelerated to substrate; mechanical interlock + some metallurgical bonding.

  • APS / VPS plasma spray — air or vacuum plasma. YSZ (yttria-stabilized zirconia ZrO₂-7Y) thermal-barrier coat (TBC) over MCrAlY bond coat on turbine combustor liners and blades. Sulzer Metco / Oerlikon, Praxair Surface Tech, Lincotek, GE-Hickham.
  • HVOF (high-velocity oxy-fuel) — supersonic flame, dense, low-porosity (< 1 %), low-oxide. WC-Co-Cr (88-12-4) replacing hard-chrome on landing gear (Boeing/Airbus REACH driver); per AMS 2447. Praxair Tafa, Castolin Eutectic.
  • Wire-arc — two consumable-wire electrodes arc and atomize in compressed air; low-cost Zn/Al for marine and structural.
  • Cold spray (CSAM) — solid-state at 600-800 m/s; no melting, no oxidation. Repair of Mg / Al aerospace castings, additive build of Cu, Ti, Ta sputter targets. VRC Metal Systems, Impact Innovations.
  • Thermal-spray aluminum (TSA) — 99 % Al wire-arc spray, 200-500 µm, offshore pipe, splash zone, CUI (corrosion under insulation) on insulated piping. NACE SP0198. Cathodic to steel, sacrificial.
  • HA on Ti — hydroxyapatite plasma-spray on Ti hip / knee stems, ISO 13779.

10. Heat treatment (surface-thermal)

Through-hardening modifies bulk; case-hardening creates a hard skin over a tough core.

  • Quench-and-temper (Q&T) through-harden — AISI 4140 to 32-45 HRC, 4340 to 38-50 HRC. Whole part hardens; mostly bulk, but the surface gets the same treatment.
  • Carburizing — C diffused into low-C steel (8620, 9310, Pyrowear 53) at 900-950 °C in CO/CH₄ atmosphere → 60-62 HRC case at 0.5-2.0 mm depth. Gas atmosphere, vacuum LPC (low-pressure carburizing — Ipsen, ALD), or plasma. Gears, bearings, camshafts. AMS 2759/7.
  • Carbonitriding — C + N at slightly lower T 800-870 °C. Better wear (N component) at shallow case 0.1-0.5 mm. Auto sintered gears.
  • Nitriding — N diffused at 500-560 °C below A1; no quench required, low distortion. Forms 5-30 µm white-layer (Fe₂-₃N + Fe₄N) plus 100-500 µm diffusion zone at 1000-1300 HV. Gas (Floe two-stage), plasma (ion), salt-bath FNC (Tenifer / QPQ — Durferrit). Substrates: Nitralloy 135M, AISI 4140N, Custom-450, 422 SS. Gun barrels (Glock, Beretta tenifer), high-load gears, dies. AMS 2759/10.
  • Nitrocarburizing (FNC) — N + small C 560-580 °C; Tufftride / Tenifer / Nitrotec / Nitrex / Melonite (QPQ post-oxidize + polish step gives the matte black finish on AR-15 BCG, Glock slides). AMS 2753.
  • Induction hardening — RF-heated surface to austenite + spray quench. Spot-hardened gear teeth, crankshaft journals, camshaft lobes. Inductoheat, EFD. SAE J423 surface hardness.

11. Painting, powder coating, E-coat

Organic top-coats provide UV / chemistry / appearance over the metallic / conversion under-layer.

  • Wet paint — solvent-borne or water-borne. Epoxy 2K (chemical primer, high build), polyurethane 2K (top-coat, gloss + UV — aircraft top-coat, marine), alkyd (lower-cost industrial), acrylic (architectural, automotive top-coat). Aircraft scheme: chromate or sol-gel pretreat + epoxy primer (PRC-DeSoto 02GN084, Akzo Aerodur) + polyurethane top-coat (Akzo Aerodur, Sherwin AeroBase, Mankiewicz Alexit, Hentzen 16708).
  • E-coat (electrocoat / CED) — cathodic-epoxy primer deposited from aqueous bath at 200-400 V on phosphated steel BIW; 20-25 µm even on interior box-sections. PPG Powercron, BASF CathoGuard, Axalta AquaEC. Auto, appliance.
  • Powder coat — electrostatic application of dry-thermoset powder; cured at 180-200 °C / 10-20 min. Epoxy (indoor, chemical-resistant, chalks UV), polyester (TGIC or TGIC-free / HAA, outdoor UV-stable), epoxy-polyester hybrid (cabinetry), polyurethane (chemical + appearance). Spray equipment: corona (Gema, Nordson) or tribo gun (lower Faraday). Suppliers: Tiger Drylac, Akzo Interpon, IFS Coatings, Sherwin Powdura.
  • Fusion-bond epoxy (FBE) — single-coat 350-500 µm epoxy powder applied to preheated pipe (~230 °C) for buried-oil-gas pipeline. 3M Scotchkote 6233/6258, AkzoNobel International Powder, Valspar Pipeclad. CSA Z245.20.
  • 3-LPE / 3-LPP — three-layer FBE + adhesive + extruded HDPE/PP — premium offshore pipe (DIN 30670).
  • Marine / heavy industrial — high-build Zn-rich epoxy primer (Hempel Hempadur Zinc 17360, Jotun Jotamastic 87, International Intershield 300) + epoxy mid + PU top.

12. Mechanical surface treatment

Cold work imparts compressive residual stress at the surface — extends fatigue life.

  • Shot peening — controlled spherical-shot impact at Almen-strip intensity (e.g. 0.012-0.018 A2). MIL-S-13165, SAE AMS 2430 / J442 / J443. Wheelabrator, Curtiss-Wright Surface Tech, MIC. Gear roots, springs, blisks.
  • Laser peening (LSP) — confined laser-induced plasma shock; deeper compressive layer (1-2 mm vs 0.2-0.5 mm for shot). High-cycle fatigue on F-22 / F119 fan blades, P&W blisks, Rolls-Royce. Curtiss-Wright LSP, LSP Technologies.
  • Roller burnishing — hardened roller compresses surface under high P. Mirror-smooth Ra < 0.1 µm and compressive stress. Cogsdill Tool, Ecoroll, Yamasa. Hydraulic shafts, internal bores, crank journals.
  • Shot / grit blasting — surface profile + paint-prep cleanliness. SSPC-SP 5 (white metal), SP 6 (commercial), SP 7 (brush-off), SP 10 (near-white). NACE No. 1-4 equivalent. Steel grit, garnet, glass bead, alumina.
  • Abrasive flow machining (AFM) — viscous abrasive putty extruded under pressure through internal passages. Extrude Hone (Kennametal). Polishes interior bores of injector nozzles, AM-printed internal channels, turbine cooling holes.

13. Galvanizing (Zn dip / Zn-alloy continuous)

  • Hot-dip galvanize (HDG) — structural steel dipped in molten Zn at 450 °C, 50-130 µm Zn-Fe intermetallic + free-Zn outer. ASTM A123 (structures), A153 (fasteners), A767 (rebar). 20-50+ year atmospheric life. Suppliers: AZZ Galvanizing, V&S Galvanizing.
  • Galvanneal — HDG + 500 °C anneal converts free-Zn to Zn-Fe; better paint adhesion (auto body BIW outer panels).
  • Continuous strip galvanize — coil-line Zn or Zn-alloy on flat sheet.
    • Galvalume = 55 % Al + 1.5 % Si + Zn-bal, premium roofing, 4-7× plain-Zn life. ASTM A792.
    • Galfan = 5 % Al + Zn + mischmetal, formable, marine.
    • GI / GA = plain Zn / galvanneal.
  • Electrogalvanize — thin (5-15 µm), bright, smoother, for cosmetic auto panel.
  • Zinc-rich primer (cold galvanizing) — Zn-filled organic paint with 80-92 % Zn metal in dry film; ASTM D520 Zn dust, MIL-DTL-26915, SSPC-Paint 20. ZRC, Rust-Oleum Cold Galvanizing Compound, Carboline Carbozinc.

14. Composite-bonding / adhesion pretreats

  • Sol-gel — 3M AC-130-2 (Surf-X) — chemical conversion of Al that improves adhesive bond durability. Replaces FPL etch and PAA in some structural-bond applications; Boeing BAC5749.
  • Phosphoric-acid anodize (PAA) — see section 2; classic structural-bond pretreat for Al-honeycomb.
  • Plasma treatment — atmospheric plasma (Plasmatreat Openair) raises surface energy of PP, PE, PEEK from 30 mN/m to 60+ mN/m for paint/adhesive on auto bumpers and HDPE bottles.
  • Flame treatment — propane / O₂ flame raises HDPE / PP surface energy for printing; HDPE bottles, food trays.
  • Corona treatment — high-voltage electrical discharge on plastic web, raises surface energy for printing on film.

15. Selection heuristics

ApplicationRecommended treatment
Al architectural panel (curtain wall)Type II sulfuric anodize + electrolytic-colored or dyed + cold seal
Al firearm slide / pistol frameType III hardcoat anodize + PTFE impregnation
Aerospace Al frameTSA or PAA + Cr³⁺ conversion + epoxy primer + PU top-coat
Aerospace steel fastener (under-hood / airframe)Zn-Ni + Cr³⁺ passivate + organic top-coat (Hi-Kote, Magni)
Auto under-hood fastenerZn or Zn-Ni + Cr³⁺
Aerospace landing-gear strut journalHVOF WC-Co-Cr (replacing Cr⁶⁺ hard-chrome)
Rifle barrel (commercial sporting)Mn-phosphate + oil (Parkerized), or QPQ Tenifer (Glock), or NiB
AR-15 bolt-carrier groupSalt-bath nitrocarburizing + black-oxide (Melonite QPQ)
Carbide turning insert (steel turning)CVD TiN / TiCN / Al₂O₃ / TiN multilayer
Carbide milling cutter (hardened steel)PVD AlTiN or AlCrN
Hot-forging die (high-T)Nitride + PVD AlCrN
Ti hip / knee implantPEO/MAO + plasma-spray HA
Turbine blade (HPT)MCrAlY bond coat + YSZ TBC (APS or EB-PVD)
Auto-trans gearCarburize 8620 to 1.0 mm at 60 HRC + post-shot-peen root
Crankshaft journalsInduction-harden + nitride + roller-burnish
Hydraulic ramHard-chrome (legacy) or HVOF WC-Co (REACH-compliant)
Offshore buried pipeFBE single-coat or 3-LPE multi-layer
Offshore splash-zone riserTSA (thermal-spray Al)
Consumer outdoor metal furnitureZn-rich primer + polyester powder-coat
BIW automotive bodyZn phosphate + cathodic epoxy E-coat + powder primer + base + clear
Marine bronze fittingOften bare; or Sn plate for solderability
RF microwave cavityAg plate over Cu under-plate
Cryo / high-T threaded joint (turbine bolt)Ag plate (anti-galling)
Spring (auto valve, suspension)Shot peen to compressive σ, oil-tempered
MEMS / additive Ti part corrosion barrierALD Al₂O₃ + parylene top-coat

16. Cross-references

17. Citations

  • MIL-PRF-8625F — Anodic Coatings for Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys (Types I, II, III).
  • MIL-DTL-5541F — Chemical Conversion Coatings on Al and Al Alloys.
  • MIL-DTL-16232G — Phosphate Coatings, Heavy, Mn or Zn-base.
  • MIL-DTL-13924D — Black-Oxide Coatings on Ferrous Metals.
  • MIL-STD-870C — Cadmium Plating, Low-Embrittlement, Electrodeposition.
  • MIL-DTL-83488D — Aluminum Coating, High-Purity (IVD-Al).
  • MIL-DTL-26074G — Coatings, Electroless Nickel, Requirements For.
  • MIL-DTL-26915E — Primer Coating, Zinc Dust Pigmented, for Steel Surfaces.
  • ASTM B633 — Electrodeposited Coatings of Zn on Iron and Steel.
  • ASTM B841 — Electrodeposited Zn-Ni Alloy Deposits.
  • ASTM B488 — Electrodeposited Au for Engineering Uses.
  • ASTM B733 — Autocatalytic (Electroless) Ni-P Coatings on Metal.
  • ASTM A123 / A153 / A767 — Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Steel.
  • ASTM A792 — Steel Sheet, 55 % Al-Zn Alloy Coated (Galvalume).
  • AMS 2400 family — plating (2400 Cd, 2403 Ni, 2404 EN, 2406 Cr-hard, 2417 Zn-Ni, 2419 Sn).
  • AMS 2430 / SAE J442 / J443 — shot peening; AMS 2546 — laser peening.
  • AMS 2447 — HVOF coating of WC-Co for hard-chrome replacement.
  • AMS 2753 — Nitrocarburizing.
  • AMS 2759/7 — carburizing of steel parts; AMS 2759/10 — nitriding.
  • ISO 7599 — Anodic oxidation of Al for architectural purposes.
  • ISO 4527 — Autocatalytic (electroless) Ni-P coatings.
  • ISO 13779 — Implants for surgery, HA coatings.
  • SSPC-SP 1 to SP 10 / NACE No. 1-4 — Surface-preparation cleanliness.
  • NACE SP0198 — Control of CUI; TSA application.
  • CSA Z245.20 — External FBE coating on pipeline steel.
  • DIN 30670 — Polyethylene coatings on pipes (3-LPE).
  • BAC5555 / BAC5749 — Boeing process specs (PAA, sol-gel).
  • ASM Handbook, Vol. 5: Surface Engineering, ASM International (1994, updated editions).
  • NASF Surface Technology Reference resources, https://www.nasf.org/.

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