Titanium Alloys — Family Index
1. At a glance
Titanium exhibits an allotropic transformation at 882.5 °C (the β-transus of pure Ti):
- α phase — hexagonal close-packed (HCP), stable below 882.5 °C in pure Ti. Lower ductility, higher creep resistance, weldable, not heat-treatable to high strength.
- β phase — body-centred cubic (BCC), stable above 882.5 °C in pure Ti. Higher ductility, deeper hardenability, heat-treatable.
- α + β mixed — produced by alloying with both α-stabilisers (Al, O, N, C, Sn, Zr is neutral) and β-stabilisers (V, Mo, Nb, Ta, Fe, Cr, Cu, Ni, W, Mn, Si).
Alloy class taxonomy:
| Class | β-stabiliser content (Mo equiv.) | Heat-treatable | Typical examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| CP (commercially pure) | 0 | No | Grades 1–4, 7, 11, 12 |
| α | low | No (anneal only) | Ti-5Al-2.5Sn |
| Near-α | 1–2 % Mo eq. | Limited | Ti-6242, IMI 834 |
| α-β | 4–10 % Mo eq. | Yes (STA) | Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6-6-2 |
| Metastable β | 10–15 % Mo eq. | Yes (STA) | Ti-10-2-3, Ti-5553, Ti-15-3 |
| β (stable) | > 30 % Mo eq. | No (cold-work only) | Beta-C, Ti-40 |
Headline numbers:
- Density: 4.51 g/cm³ (~57 % of steel, ~165 % of aluminium).
- Modulus: 100–115 GPa (~half of steel).
- Yield: 170 MPa (CP Grade 1) to 1100 MPa (β STA forgings, e.g. Ti-5553).
- Strength-to-weight: best of any common structural metal in the 200–500 °C range.
- Coefficient of thermal expansion: 8.6 × 10⁻⁶/K (~half of austenitic stainless).
- Thermal conductivity: 6.7 W/m·K (very low — drives machining behaviour).
- Excellent passive-oxide corrosion resistance in oxidising/neutral media; vulnerable in reducing acids and dry chlorine.
2. CP grades (commercially pure)
All CP grades are single-phase α. Strength rises with interstitial O + N + Fe; ductility falls.
| ASTM B265 grade | Composition (nominal) | Yield (MPa) | UTS (MPa) | Elong (%) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grade 1 | unalloyed, O ≤ 0.18 | 170 | 240 | 30 | Highest formability, deep-draw, explosion clad |
| Grade 2 | unalloyed, O ≤ 0.25 | 275 | 345 | 28 | The common one — heat-exchanger, chem plant, seawater |
| Grade 3 | unalloyed, O ≤ 0.35 | 380 | 450 | 25 | Pressure vessels, mid-strength |
| Grade 4 | unalloyed, O ≤ 0.40 | 480 | 550 | 20 | Highest-strength CP; surgical, airframe |
| Grade 7 | Ti + 0.12–0.25 Pd | 275 | 345 | 28 | Grade 2 chemistry + Pd → crevice-corrosion resistance |
| Grade 11 | Ti + 0.12–0.25 Pd | 170 | 240 | 30 | Grade 1 chemistry + Pd |
| Grade 12 | Ti-0.3Mo-0.8Ni | 345 | 480 | 18 | Improved CR + weldability, mildly reducing acids |
| Grade 17 | Ti + 0.04–0.08 Pd | 275 | 345 | 28 | Lean-Pd cost-reduced Grade 7 |
| Grade 27 | Ti + 0.04–0.08 Pd | 380 | 450 | 25 | Lean-Pd cost-reduced equivalent of Grade 16/9-class |
Grade 2 is the workhorse for chemical-process plant, desalination, geothermal, marine condenser tubing. Grade 7 is the answer for crevice corrosion in hot brines (where Grade 2 may fail by crevice attack above ~70 °C).
3. Alpha and near-α alloys
α and near-α retain α-phase stability up to high temperature → used where creep + weldability matter more than peak strength.
- Ti-5Al-2.5Sn (Grade 6) — true α. Cryogenic tankage (LH₂ pressure vessels — Atlas Centaur), steam-turbine blades. ELI variant for cryogenic toughness.
- Ti-3Al-2.5V (Grade 9) — near-α (small β content). Hydraulic-tubing standard on commercial airframes (cold-pilgered seamless tube). 620 MPa yield cold-worked.
- Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo (Ti-6242 / Ti-6242S with Si) — near-α. Engine compressor discs and blades to 540 °C; Si addition (0.08–0.1 %) for creep.
- Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V — high-Al near-α; SR-71 / P&W JT9D fan blades historically. Largely superseded by 6242 due to α₂ embrittlement.
- IMI 685 (Ti-6Al-5Zr-0.5Mo-0.25Si) — near-α, ≤520 °C compressor.
- IMI 829 (Ti-5.5Al-3.5Sn-3Zr-1Nb-0.25Mo-0.3Si) — ≤550 °C.
- IMI 834 (Ti-5.8Al-4Sn-3.5Zr-0.7Nb-0.5Mo-0.35Si-0.06C) — ≤600 °C, Rolls-Royce Trent compressor discs.
- Ti-1100 (Ti-6Al-2.75Sn-4Zr-0.4Mo-0.45Si) — ≤600 °C, US analogue of IMI 834.
4. α-β workhorses
The largest production class. Heat-treatable by solution + age (STA); strength tunable by ageing temperature.
- Ti-6Al-4V (Grade 5) — the iconic alloy. ~50 % of all titanium produced. Mill-annealed: 830 MPa yield, 900 MPa UTS, 14 % elong. STA: up to ~1100 MPa yield in thin sections. Workhorse for airframe forgings (F-22, F-35, 787 wing-to-body fittings), engine fan blades (CFM56 stages 1–3), gas-turbine cases, total hip stems since the 1970s.
- Ti-6Al-4V ELI (Grade 23) — extra-low interstitial (O ≤ 0.13, Fe ≤ 0.25). Implant grade + cryogenic. Lower strength, much higher fracture toughness.
- Ti-6Al-4V STA — solution at 925–955 °C + age 480–595 °C → 1100 MPa yield class. Section-size limited (hardenability shallow).
- Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn (Grade 24) — higher β content than 6-4. 1100 MPa STA in heavier sections than 6-4. Ordnance, rocket motor cases.
- Ti-3Al-2.5V (Grade 9) — near-α but typically grouped here for tubing applications. CWSR (cold-worked stress-relieved) tube: 690 MPa yield.
- Ti-6Al-2Sn-2Zr-2Mo-2Cr-0.25Si (β-CEZ, Ti-17) — α-β with deep hardenability. Engine fan and compressor discs to ~430 °C.
- Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo (Ti-6246) — α-β; deeper hardenability than 6-4, used to ~450 °C disc applications.
5. Metastable β and β alloys
High β-stabiliser content → β retained on quench, aged at 480–565 °C to precipitate fine α and reach peak strength. Deep-section hardenable; cold-formable in solution-treated condition; heaviest of the Ti alloys (~4.85 g/cm³).
- Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al (Ti-10-2-3) — Boeing 777 / 787 main and nose landing-gear truck beams, beams, and uplocks. STA: 1240 MPa UTS, deep-section forgeable. Replaced 300M steel in 777 MLG.
- Ti-5Al-5V-5Mo-3Cr (Ti-5553, VSMPO TC18) — A350 main landing gear, large fittings. STA: 1250 MPa UTS in heavy section. Slightly higher modulus than 10-2-3.
- Ti-15V-3Cr-3Sn-3Al (Ti-15-3) — cold-rollable sheet and spring alloy. STA: 1000 MPa UTS. Honeycomb skins, springs.
- Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr (Beta-C, Grade 19/20) — coil and rod springs, downhole oilfield tubulars, fasteners. STA: 1240 MPa UTS.
- Ti-15Mo (ASTM F2066) — medical β; high-strength orthopaedic.
- Ti-13Nb-13Zr (ASTM F1713) — medical near-β; modulus ~79 GPa (closer to bone — reduces stress-shielding).
- Ti-12Mo-6Zr-2Fe (TMZF, ASTM F1813) — medical β; modulus ~74–85 GPa.
- Ti-35Nb-7Zr-5Ta (TNZT) — research-grade ultra-low-modulus (~55 GPa).
- Timetal 21S (Ti-15Mo-3Nb-3Al-0.2Si) — high-temperature β for engine ducting / nozzles; oxidation-resistant.
6. Aerospace alloys grouped by application
Engine — compressor (rotating, hot section approaching turbine):
| Alloy | Service ceiling | Form |
|---|---|---|
| Ti-6-4 | 315 °C | Fan blades, LP compressor blades |
| Ti-6242 | 540 °C | HP compressor discs + blades |
| Ti-6246 | 450 °C | Discs (deeper hardenability than 6-4) |
| IMI 829 | 550 °C | Compressor discs |
| IMI 834 / Ti-1100 | 600 °C | Late-stage HP compressor discs |
| Ti-17 (5-2-2-4-4) | 430 °C | Discs (Snecma M88) |
Airframe — forgings (high static + fatigue strength, deep sections):
| Alloy | Section | Strength | Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ti-6-4 | thin/mid | 830 MPa yield | Bulkheads, fittings, fasteners |
| Ti-6-4 STA | thin only | 1100 MPa | Critical small forgings |
| Ti-10-2-3 | heavy | 1100–1240 MPa | 777/787 MLG |
| Ti-5553 | heavy | 1100–1250 MPa | A350 MLG, large fittings |
| Ti-6246 | mid/heavy | 1100 MPa | Discs, larger fittings |
Airframe — sheet and plate:
| Alloy | Form | Use |
|---|---|---|
| Ti-6-4 | sheet/plate | Skins, brackets, firewalls |
| Ti-15-3 | sheet (cold-rolled) | Skins, honeycomb face sheets |
| Ti-3-2.5 (Grade 9) | tube | Hydraulic tubing (3000–5000 psi) |
| CP Grade 2/4 | sheet | Acoustic panels, ducting |
7. Medical / biocompatible alloys
Three biological requirements: passive oxide stability in saline + serum, no V/Ni/Co ion release, modulus matching bone (10–30 GPa cortical) to reduce stress-shielding.
| Alloy | ASTM | Modulus (GPa) | Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| CP Grade 4 | F67 | 105 | Dental abutments, dental crowns, plates |
| Ti-6Al-4V ELI | F136 | 114 | Total hip stems, femoral heads (historical), spinal cages, dental |
| Ti-6Al-7Nb (Protasul-100) | F1295 | 105 | Hip stems (vanadium-free), bone screws |
| Ti-13Nb-13Zr | F1713 | 79 | Hip stems (lower-modulus generation) |
| Ti-12Mo-6Zr-2Fe (TMZF) | F1813 | 74–85 | Hip stems |
| Ti-15Mo | F2066 | 78 | Spinal, orthopaedic |
| Ti-Ni (Nitinol, ~50 at% Ni) | F2063 | varies (SE) | Stents, orthodontic arch wire, guidewires — see titanium-alloys |
Surface treatments common in medical: anodised TiO₂ for colour-coding and apatite-affinity; HA (hydroxyapatite) plasma-spray for bone in-growth; SLA (sandblast + acid-etch) for dental implants.
8. Heat treatment
Standard treatments:
- Mill anneal (MA) — α-β alloys held below β-transus (e.g. 705–790 °C for Ti-6-4), air-cool. Default for plate/bar.
- Solution treat + age (STA) — solution above or just below β-transus, water- or oil-quench, age 480–595 °C / 4–8 h. Peak strength in α-β and metastable β.
- Recrystallisation anneal (RA) — 925 °C / 4 h / FC for Ti-6-4 → coarser α, better fracture toughness.
- Beta anneal (BA) — 30–50 °C above β-transus, slow-cool → lamellar (Widmanstätten) α colony structure. Best fracture toughness, lower fatigue.
- Stress relief — 480–650 °C / 1–4 h. Standard after welding and machining.
- Duplex anneal — first hold near β-transus to grow β grain, second below to grow primary α → bi-modal microstructure.
Microstructures (Ti-6-4 reference):
| Microstructure | Origin | Strength | Fatigue | Toughness | Creep |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equiaxed (α-β annealed) | Sub-transus + slow-cool | Mid | Best LCF | Mid | Mid |
| Lamellar (β-annealed) | Super-transus + cool | Mid | Worst LCF | Best | Best |
| Bi-modal (duplex) | Duplex anneal | High | Mid–high | Mid–high | Mid |
| Martensitic α′ | Super-transus + WQ | Highest | Mid | Lowest | Lowest |
| Acicular Widmanstätten | β + air-cool from above transus | High | Mid | High | High |
Forging is typically α-β (sub-transus) to keep an equiaxed primary-α structure. β-forging (above transus) is used where toughness or creep dominates (turbine discs, large airframe fittings in 10-2-3 or 5553).
9. Processing notes
Melting: double or triple VAR (vacuum arc remelt) from Kroll-process sponge + master-alloy. Critical applications (rotating engine parts) use triple-VAR or VAR-after-EB-CHM (cold-hearth) to remove high-density inclusions (HDI — tungsten carbide from Kroll reactor) and hard-α (oxygen-rich nitride/oxide). Per AMS 2380 / 4928 rev N.
Forging window: 815–980 °C for α-β alloys; β-forging windows are alloy-specific and typically span ~30 °C above transus. Lubricant: glass-frit (Acheson) coatings. Die life is poor — Ti work-hardens against the die.
Machining:
- Cutting speeds 30–60 m/min (Ti-6-4) vs ~150 for steel.
- Sharp tools, large positive rake, high feed rate, low speed.
- Flood coolant (water-soluble) — never run dry. Heat does not leave with the chip; it goes into the tool.
- Carbide grades K10/K20 or coated; high-pressure (70 bar+) through-spindle coolant for milling.
- Climb-mill, not conventional. Never dwell.
- Chip ignition risk on dry grinding; magnesium-like fire response (no water on burning Ti; smother with Class D dry powder).
Welding: GTAW (TIG) with argon back-purge + trailing shield; oxygen pickup above 425 °C embrittles the weld. Acceptable hardness rise via colour: silver/straw OK, blue marginal, grey/white reject. EB and laser also standard. Resistance and friction-stir for some sheet applications.
Forming: SPF (superplastic forming) at 870–925 °C for Ti-6-4 — strain rates ~10⁻⁴ /s, elongations 300–1000 %. Combined SPF/DB (diffusion-bonding) for honeycomb sandwich.
Additive manufacturing:
- Ti-6-4 LPBF — standard. Build under argon; HIP at 920 °C / 100 MPa / 2 h is mandatory for fatigue-rated parts to close internal porosity.
- Ti-6-4 EBM — Arcam-process; built at 700 °C in vacuum; no post-stress-relief needed.
- Ti-6242 LPBF — emerging for engine brackets.
- CP grades + Beta-C + Ti-5553 — also commercially available.
Galvanic / contamination cautions:
- No contact with bare steel during heat treatment (Fe diffuses in, lowers β-transus locally, ruins fatigue).
- No chlorinated cutting fluids — risk of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) in subsequent service.
- No fluoride-containing solutions, no hot concentrated HCl, no anhydrous methanol, no red fuming nitric acid (RFNA) — pyrophoric reaction with Ti.
- No Cd plating in contact with Ti above ~230 °C — liquid-metal embrittlement.
- Avoid mercury, AgCl, lead solder near titanium parts.
10. Comparison table — common alloys
UTS / Yield / Elong are typical room-temperature properties for the common heat-treat condition.
| Alloy | Class | UTS (MPa) | Yield (MPa) | Elong (%) | T_service (°C) | Typical use |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CP Grade 1 | α (CP) | 240 | 170 | 30 | 300 | Deep-draw, explosion clad |
| CP Grade 2 | α (CP) | 345 | 275 | 28 | 300 | Chem plant, seawater |
| CP Grade 3 | α (CP) | 450 | 380 | 25 | 300 | Pressure vessel |
| CP Grade 4 | α (CP) | 550 | 480 | 20 | 300 | Surgical, airframe |
| Grade 7 | α (CP+Pd) | 345 | 275 | 28 | 300 | Crevice-corrosion service |
| Grade 12 | α (CP+MoNi) | 480 | 345 | 18 | 300 | Mild reducing acids |
| Ti-5Al-2.5Sn (Gr 6) | α | 860 | 800 | 16 | 480 | Cryogenic, steam turbine |
| Ti-5Al-2.5Sn ELI | α | 760 | 730 | 17 | 20 K | LH₂ tankage |
| Ti-3Al-2.5V (Gr 9) | near-α | 690 | 620 | 15 | 300 | Hydraulic tube CWSR |
| Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V | near-α | 1000 | 950 | 15 | 455 | (Legacy) engine |
| Ti-6242 | near-α | 1010 | 950 | 14 | 540 | Compressor disc/blade |
| IMI 685 | near-α | 990 | 880 | 13 | 520 | Compressor disc |
| IMI 829 | near-α | 1000 | 900 | 13 | 550 | Compressor disc |
| IMI 834 | near-α | 1050 | 950 | 12 | 600 | Compressor disc |
| Ti-1100 | near-α | 1010 | 910 | 12 | 600 | Compressor disc |
| Ti-6Al-4V (Gr 5) MA | α-β | 950 | 880 | 14 | 400 | Workhorse |
| Ti-6Al-4V STA | α-β | 1170 | 1100 | 10 | 400 | Fasteners, fittings |
| Ti-6Al-4V ELI (Gr 23) | α-β | 860 | 795 | 15 | 20 K / implant | Hip, cryogenic |
| Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn (Gr 24) | α-β | 1170 | 1100 | 10 | 315 | Heavier sections than 6-4 |
| Ti-6246 | α-β | 1170 | 1100 | 10 | 450 | Disc, heavy forging |
| Ti-17 (5-2-2-4-4) | α-β | 1180 | 1090 | 12 | 430 | Engine disc (M88) |
| Ti-10-2-3 | meta-β | 1240 | 1170 | 8 | 315 | 777 MLG |
| Ti-5553 | meta-β | 1250 | 1170 | 8 | 315 | A350 MLG, large fittings |
| Ti-15-3 | meta-β | 1000 | 965 | 10 | 315 | Sheet, springs |
| Beta-C (Gr 19/20) | meta-β | 1240 | 1170 | 8 | 315 | Springs, oilfield |
| Ti-6Al-7Nb | α-β | 900 | 800 | 15 | implant | V-free hip stem |
| Ti-13Nb-13Zr | near-β | 970 | 830 | 15 | implant | Low-modulus hip |
| Ti-15Mo | β | 870 | 760 | 21 | implant | Spinal |
| Timetal 21S | β | 1240 | 1170 | 10 | 540 | Engine duct, nozzle |
Densities all 4.4–4.9 g/cm³ (Ti-10-2-3 + Beta-C heaviest at ~4.85; CP lightest at 4.51).
11. Selection heuristics
- Aircraft fastener, high-strength → Ti-6Al-4V forged + STA (AMS 4967, AS3239).
- Engine compressor blade ≤ 540 °C → Ti-6242S (with Si).
- Engine compressor disc ≤ 600 °C → IMI 834 or Ti-1100.
- Fan blade, large → Ti-6Al-4V (hollow, with SPF/DB).
- Orthopaedic implant, classical → Ti-6Al-4V ELI (F136) or Ti-6Al-7Nb (V-free, F1295).
- Orthopaedic implant, lower modulus to reduce stress-shielding → Ti-13Nb-13Zr or Ti-12Mo-6Zr-2Fe.
- Coil and torsion springs → Beta-C STA (Grade 19/20) or Ti-15-3.
- Sheet, cold-formable, age-hardenable → Ti-15-3.
- Heavy-section landing-gear forging → Ti-10-2-3 (Boeing legacy) or Ti-5553 (Airbus).
- Hydraulic tubing, airframe (3000–5000 psi) → Ti-3Al-2.5V (Grade 9) CWSR per AMS 4945.
- Corrosive chem-plant heat exchanger → CP Grade 2 (ASTM B265, ASTM B338 tubing).
- Hot brine with crevice risk (geothermal, seawater desalination > 70 °C) → Grade 7 or Grade 27 (Pd-containing).
- Cryogenic pressure vessel (LH₂, LOX) → Ti-5Al-2.5Sn ELI.
- Surgical instrument body → CP Grade 4 or Ti-6-4 (anodised colour for size-coding).
- AM aerospace bracket → Ti-6-4 LPBF + HIP (HIP per AMS 2774 / ASTM F3001).
- Hot oxidation-resistant nozzle / exhaust skin → Timetal 21S.
12. Failure modes
- Hydrogen embrittlement — β-stabilised alloys absorb H from cathodic cleaning, plating bath, or acid pickling. Threshold ~100–150 ppm H for Ti-6-4; lower for β alloys. Manifests as delayed cracking. Remedy: vacuum anneal at 700 °C / 4 h post-pickle.
- Hard-α inclusions — local high-O/N regions from sponge or scrap, brittle and crack on first overstress. Drove the Sioux City DC-10 disc rupture (1989) → triple-VAR + sonic inspection mandated for rotating engine grade.
- Fines / turnings ignition — chips, dust, and grinding swarf are pyrophoric in air; metal-fire hazard. Wet-collect and store under water; never let dust accumulate.
- Salt-water SCC — high-strength α-β alloys (Ti-8-1-1, Ti-6-4 STA) crack under load in NaCl above 290 °C. Service-temp guidance: do not solution-treat-and-age Ti-6-4 for parts exposed to hot salt water.
- Galling / self-mating thread seizure — Ti against Ti or Ti against austenitic stainless cold-welds. Mitigation: Ag-plate or Cu-plate on threads, MoS₂-grease (with caution — sulphur SCC at high T), or Cetyl wax.
- Fretting fatigue — Ti fan blade roots / dovetails. Mitigation: shot-peen + DLC or CuNiIn coatings.
- Liquid-metal embrittlement — Cd > 230 °C, Hg, Ag at 850 °C+. Keep Ti away from cadmium-plated tooling and fasteners.
- Pyrophoric reaction with chlorine — dry Cl₂ and Ti ignite spontaneously above ~30 °C. Wet Cl₂ (≥ 1 % H₂O) is safe.
- Oxygen-enriched fires — burns in pure O₂ at modest pressure. Avoid Ti in LOX systems or use only the cryogenic ELI grade with controlled surface finish.
13. Vendors
| Company | Country | Specialty |
|---|---|---|
| VSMPO-AVISMA | RU | Largest Ti producer worldwide; mill + forgings; ingot for 787, A350, A380 |
| TIMET (Berkshire Hathaway) | US | Mill products, ingot, plate, sheet, tube |
| ATI (Allegheny Technologies) | US | Mill products, melt, ingot, forging stock |
| Howmet Aerospace | US | Engine + airframe forgings (ex-Arconic Forgings) |
| PCC Structurals (Berkshire Hathaway) | US | Investment castings (Ti-6-4 engine cases, airframe fittings) |
| Aubert & Duval | FR | Forgings, special alloys |
| Tokushu Kinzoku / Kobe Steel / Nippon Steel | JP | Mill products + medical |
| Western Superconducting Technologies (WST) | CN | Ingot, mill products, forging stock |
| BAOTI / Pangang | CN | CP grades, sponge |
| OSAKA Titanium / Toho Titanium | JP | Kroll sponge feedstock |
14. Cross-references
- aluminum-alloys — airframe metal at lower service temp + density
- steel-grades — when Ti is replaced by 300M or 4340 in landing gear (cost)
- stainless-steels — competing corrosion-resistant material in chem plant
- aerodynamics — context for engine + airframe alloy choice
- additive-manufacturing — Ti-6-4 LPBF and EBM
- biomechanics — implant stress-shielding driving low-modulus β alloys
- joining-welding — GTAW with trailing shield, EB, FSW
- fracture-mechanics — hard-α inclusions, fatigue striations in Ti
15. Citations
- ASM Handbook Vol. 2: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose Materials (1990), titanium section.
- ASM Handbook Vol. 3: Alloy Phase Diagrams — Ti-Al, Ti-V, Ti-Mo binaries and ternaries.
- ASM Handbook Vol. 4: Heat Treating — titanium chapter (STA windows, β-transus tables).
- Donachie, M.J., Titanium: A Technical Guide, 2nd ed., ASM International, 2000.
- Lütjering, G. and Williams, J.C., Titanium, 2nd ed., Springer Engineering Materials and Processes, 2007.
- Boyer, R., Welsch, G. and Collings, E.W. (eds.), Materials Properties Handbook: Titanium Alloys, ASM, 1994.
- ASTM B265 — Standard Specification for Titanium and Titanium Alloy Strip, Sheet, and Plate.
- ASTM B348 — Bars and Billets.
- ASTM B338 — Seamless and Welded Tubes for Condensers and Heat Exchangers.
- ASTM F67 — CP titanium for surgical implant applications.
- ASTM F136 — Ti-6Al-4V ELI for surgical implants.
- ASTM F1295 — Ti-6Al-7Nb for surgical implants.
- ASTM F1713 — Ti-13Nb-13Zr for surgical implants.
- ASTM F2066 — Ti-15Mo for surgical implants.
- AMS 4911 — Ti-6Al-4V annealed sheet, strip, and plate.
- AMS 4928 — Ti-6Al-4V annealed bar, wire, forgings, ring.
- AMS 4945 — Ti-3Al-2.5V seamless hydraulic tubing.
- AMS 4967 — Ti-6Al-4V STA bar and forgings.
- AMS 2380 — Approval and control of premium-quality titanium alloys (triple-VAR for rotating-grade).
- AMS 2774 — Heat treatment, wrought titanium alloy parts.
- ASTM F3001 — Additive manufacturing, Ti-6Al-4V ELI with powder-bed fusion.
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